ديرينه شناسي (Paleontology)

زندگی روی زمین:‌ دانشنامه تنوع زیستی، اکولوژی و تکامل

Life on Earth
An Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution
Vol 1 and 2

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    * Publisher:   ABC-CLIO, Incorporated
    * Number Of Pages:   812
    * Publication Date:   2002-12-13
    * ISBN-10 / ASIN: 1576077446 
    * ISBN-13 / EAN: 9781576077443 
    * Binding: Digital 

    * Number Of Pages:   793
    * Publication Date:   2002-12-13
    * ISBN-10 / ASIN:   157607286X
    * ISBN-13 / EAN:   9781576072868
    * Binding:   Hardcover

    * Subjects: Earth Science / Life Science / Ecology / Biodiversity / Evolution / Encyclopedia

Synopsis
An examination of nature's extraordinary biological diversity and the human activities that threaten it.

From the Publisher
Life on Earth: An Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, Ecology, and Evolution tackles the critical issue for humanity in the 21st century—our ever more menacing impact on the environment. This two-volume, illustrated set, edited by American Museum of Natural History curator Niles Eldredge, begins with biodiversity, the complex planetary web of life that has emerged through three billion years of evolution. How does it work? And why is its continued health critical to the planet and to ourselves?

More than 50 top scholars examine every form of life from amoebae to elephants, from plankton to whales. But Life on Earth is more than a catalog of species. An A—Z survey explores the myriad ways humanity is diminishing that biodiversity, from industrialization to natural habitat destruction, from overpopulation in the developing world to an unsustainable consumer lifestyle in the West. Life on Earth is the essential reference work for anyone curious about our planet's extraordinary diversity of life and the unprecedented threats it faces.

Contents:
     Front Cover
     Contents
     Contributors
     Introduction
     What Is Biodiversity?
          Definition of Biodiversity
          The Levels of Organization for Biological Diversity
          A Short History of the Study of Biodiversity
          Evolutionary Processes That Create and Sustain Biodiversity
          Characterization and Measurement of Biodiversity
               Genetic Diversity
               Organismal Diversity
               Population Diversity
               Community Diversity
               Ecosystem Diversity
               Biogeographic Diversity
               Cultural Diversity
          Surrogate Measures of Overall Biodiversity
          Mapping Biodiversity
               Species-area Curves
               Island Biogeography
               Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Diversity
               Spatial Gradients in Biodiversity
               Identifying Areas of Endemism and High or Low Biodiversity
               Ecoregions
          Comparing Concepts: Biodiversity and Other Concepts of Conservation Biology
               Biotic Integrity
               Ecosystem Integrity
               Sustainability
          Setting Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation
               Bibliography
     Why Is Biodiversity Important?
          Valuing Biodiversity
          Utilitarian Value
               Goods
                    Food.
                    Wood and Forest Products
                         Services
                         Information
                         Spiritual, Cultural, Aesthetic, and Recreational
          Intrinsic Value
          Measuring the Value of Biodiversity
          Why Do Values Matter?
          Bibliography
     Threats to Biodiversity
          Underlying Causes of Biodiversity Loss
               Overpopulation and Overconsumption
               Socioeconomic Structure and Policy Failures
               Weak Government Structure, Policy, and Legislation
          Direct Causes of Biodiversity Loss
               Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
                    Decreased patch size.
                    Increased edge effects.
                    Habitat loss.
                    Increased patch isolation.
               Invasive Species
                    Dispersal Stage
                    Establishment
                    Integration
                    Ecological Consequences of Invasive Species
                    Controlling Invasive Species
               Overexploitation
                    Direct Commercial Overexploitation
                    Marine fisheries.
                    Wildlife trade.
                         Indirect Overexploitation
               Pollution
               Global Climate Change
               Synergistic Effects and Conclusions
               Bibliography
     Stemming the Tide of the Sixth Global Extinction Event: What We Can Do
          Global Issues
               Stabilize Global Population
               Consumption
          What You Can Do— Change the Way You Eat
          What You Can Do—Change Your Energy Use
               Economic Reform
          What You Can Do— Change How You Shop
          Immediate Responses to the Symptoms of the Extinction Crisis
               Establish and Manage Protected Areas
               Develop Methods for Assessing the Economic Value of Biodiversity
               Monitor Biodiversity
               Affect Legislation
               Conserve Habitats and Species on Private Lands
               Establish Pollution Permit Trading Systems
          Bibliography
Volume 1
    Contributors    ix
    Introduction    xiii
    What Is Biodiversity?    1
    Why Is Biodiversity Important?    31
    Threats to Biodiversity    49
    Stemming the Tide of the Sixth Global Extinction Event: What We Can Do    73
    Abyssal Floor    87
    Adaptation    87
    Adaptive Radiation    91
    Agricultural Ecology    93
    Agriculture and Biodiversity Loss: Genetic Engineering and the Second Agricultural Revolution    96
    Agriculture and Biodiversity Loss: Industrial Agriculture    99
    Agriculture: Benefits of Biodiversity to    105
    Agriculture, Origin of    107
    Alien Species    114
    Amphibians    118
    Angiosperms    126
    Annelida--The Segmented Worms    132
    Anthropology    135
    Archaebacteria    140
    Archaeology and Sustainable Development    142
    Arthropods, Marine    144
    Arthropods, Terrestrial    149
    Artiodactyls    157
    Atmosphere    160
    Atmospheric Cycles    162
    Atolls    163
    Avian Malaria and the Extinction of Hawaiian Birds    164
    Bacteria    167
    Barrier Islands    171
    Beaches    173
    Beauty of Nature, Biophilia and Ethics    174
    Benthos    178
    Biogeography    178
    Birds    181
    Birds of Guam and the Brown Tree Snake    188
    Black Rhinoceros    190
    Bluebuck    191
    Bony Fishes    192
    Botany    197
    Brachiopods    200
    Bryophytes    202
    Bryozoa    205
    Carbon Cycle    207
    Carnivora    208
    Carolina Parakeet    212
    Cetacea (Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises)    216
    Chiroptera (Bats)    219
    Chondrichthyes (Sharks, Rays, Chimaeras)    220
    Chordates (Nonvertebrate)    224
    Classification, Biological    226
    Climatology    229
    Cnidarians (Sea Anemones, Corals, and Jellyfish)    232
    Coastal Wetlands    234
    Coevolution    235
    Coloniality    237
    Communities    238
    Conservation Biology    243
    Conservation, Definition and History    246
    Continental Shelf    249
    Continental Slope and Rise    250
    Convergence and Parallelism    251
    Coral Reefs    252
    Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction    259
    Cultural Survival, Revival, and Preservation    263
    Dams    267
    Darwin, Charles    269
    Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Faunas    273
    Deposition    274
    Deserts and Semiarid Scrublands    276
    Draining of Wetlands    278
    Earthquakes    281
    Echinoderms    282
    Ecological Niches    287
    Ecological Status of Modern Humans    291
    Ecology    292
    Economics    299
    Ecosystems    300
    Embryology    308
    Endangered Species    312
    Erosion    315
    Estuaries    318
    Ethics of Conservation    320
    Ethnology    324
    Ethnoscience    329
    Evolution    335
    Evolutionary Biodiversity    342
    Evolutionary Genetics    347
    Extinction, Direct Causes of    352
    Five Kingdoms of Nature    357
    Flabellidium Spinosum    361
    Food Webs and Food Pyramids    362
    Freshwater    365
    Fungi    367
    Galapagos Islands and Darwin's Finches    373
    Geological Time Scale    378
    Geology, Geomorphology, and Geography    382
    Giant, Flightless Island Birds    385
    Giant Ground Sloth    388
    Glaciation    390
    Global Climate Change    393
    Great Apes    397
    Gymnosperms    399
Volume 2
    Habitat Tracking    405
    Haplochromine Cichlids of Lake Victoria    407
    Herbivory    411
    Hole in the Ozone Layer    412
    Holocene    413
    Homo Sapiens    416
    Human Evolution    418
    Humans and Biodiversity: Examples from the Hoofed Mammals    424
    Hutton, James    430
    Hydrologic Cycle    432
    Ice Caps and Glaciers    433
    Indigenous Conservation    436
    Industrial Revolution/Industrialization    439
    Interior Wetlands    443
    International Trade and Biodiversity    448
    Intertidal Zone    449
    Lagomorpha    451
    Lagoons    453
    Lakes    454
    Land Use    456
    Late Devonian Extinction    459
    Late Ordovician Extinction    462
    Late Triassic Extinction    465
    Lemurs and Other Lower Primates    467
    Lichens    469
    Linguistic Diversity    471
    Linnaean Hierarchy    475
    Lyell, Charles    479
    Mammalia    483
    Mass Extinction    486
    Medicine, The Benefits of Biodiversity to    488
    Meteorology    493
    Microbiology    496
    Mining    498
    Molecular Biology and Biodiversity    500
    Mollusca    502
    Monkeys    507
    Mountains    511
    Museums and Biodiversity    514
    Natural Selection    519
    Nitrogen Cycle    522
    Nurseries    523
    Nutrient/Energy Cycling    524
    Oceanic Trenches    527
    Oceans    528
    Order Uranotheria    531
    Organizations in Biodiversity, The Role of    535
    Oxygen, History of Presence in the Atmosphere    543
    Paleontology    545
    Palestinian Painted Frog    549
    Perissodactyls    551
    Permo-Triassic Extinction    553
    Phylogeny    556
    Physical Anthropology    558
    Plankton    561
    Plate Tectonics    569
    Pleistocene Epoch    571
    Pollination    574
    Pollution    577
    Population Growth, Human    582
    Population, Human, Curbs to Growth    586
    Positive Interactions    591
    Preservation of Habitats    594
    Preservation of Species    601
    Primates    607
    Protoctists    610
    Pteridophytes    617
    Punctuated Equilibria    620
    Reptiles    625
    Rivers and Streams    636
    Rodents    640
    Sandalwood Tree    645
    Seamounts    646
    Sixth Extinction    648
    Smallpox    650
    Snowball Earth    652
    Soil    654
    Speciation    657
    Species    659
    Sponges    664
    Subsistence    667
    Succession and Successionlike Processes    671
    Sustainable Development    677
    Systematics    681
    Thylacine    689
    Tides    691
    Topsoil Formation    692
    Topsoil, Loss of    693
    Tourism, Ecotourism, and Biodiversity    695
    Tropical Rain Forests    701
    Urbanization    707
    Valuing Biodiversity    711
    Viruses    714
    Volcanoes    717
    Wallace, Alfred Russel    719
    Xenarthrans (Edentates)    723
    Zoology    727
    Selected Bibliography    729
    Index    749
    About the Editor    793